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Revisiones en Medicina Interna basadas en la Evidencia ENFERMEDAD TROMBOEMBÓLICA VENOSA EPIDEMIOLOGÍA - En Estados Unidos se diagnostican más de 300000 casos al año - se estiman 600000 los casos no diagnosticados- que provocan unas 50000 muertes (1). FISIOPATOLOGÍA - Los émbolos pulmonares proceden mayoritariamente del sistema venoso profundo de las extremidades inferiores a nivel proximal incluyendo venas poplíteas o más frecuentemente íleo-femoral; la mayoría de los trombos distales resuelven espontáneamente y rara vez embolizan al pulmón (2-4). En menor proporción los émbolos pueden originarse en el sistema venoso pélvico-renal, extremidades superiores incluso en las cavidades cardíacas derechas. - Sólo el 10% de los émbolismos pulmonares causan infarto, habitualmente en pacientes con enfermedad cardiopulmonar preexistente. Son frecuentes los embolismos pulmonares múltiples, habitualmente localizados en lóbulos inferiores (5). - Los trastornos funcionales en el intercambio gaseoso no se explican exclusivamente por la obstrucción mecánica vascular y la modificación de los coeficientes de ventilación/perfusión, sino que obedecen también a la liberación de mediadores inflamatorios con disfunción de surfactante, alteración de la permeabilidad vascular y génesis de shunt intrapulmonar funcional (6). FACTORES DE RIESGO - Los factores de riesgo más frecuentemente identificados en el estudio PIOPED fueron la inmovilización, cirugía en los 3 meses previos, ictus, historia de enfermedad tromboembólica (ETV) y malignidad (7). - Un estudio posterior realizado en mujeres objetivó además un riesgo aumentado en obesas (RR 2.9), fumadoras (RR 1.9 entre fumadoras de 25 - 34 cigarrillos/día) o hipertensas (RR 1.9) (8). - En líneas generales podemos considerar los factores de riesgo como congénitos y adquiridos pudiendo identificar alguno de ellos en el 80% de los casos, a menudo coincidiendo varios en un mismo paciente. - Trombofilia hereditaria: tendencia genética para el desarrollo de ETV, habitualmente de forma espontánea y recurrente. Debe sospecharse cuando acontece en edades tempranas (< 50 años), la trombosis es recurrente o de localización inusual y/o hay historia familiar (311). Su incidencia en pacientes con trombosis venosa profunda (TVP) oscila entre un 24 - 37% comparada con un 10% de pacientes control (9 - 16,286). A pesar de ello no se considera indicado el screening sistemático en poblaciones no seleccionadas. Dichos pacientes pueden presentar además trombosis venosa superficial de extremidades inferiores con posibilidad de progresión a TVP y tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) (17). La trombosis venosa de extremidades superiores (TVP-ES) se ha relacionado de forma dispar con la presencia de TH (289-291). Trastornos causantes de TH son: 1. Factor V Leiden y resistencia a la proteína C activada: 2. Deficiencia de proteína C (PC): 3. Deficiencia de antitrombina III (AT-III): 4. Deficiencia de proteína S (PS): a) Tipo I (clásica): 50% de PS total y mayor reducción en PS libre y actividad como cofactor de la PC 5. Mutación en el gen de la protrombina (G20210A): 6. Deficiencia del cofactor 2 de la heparina: defecto con HAD cuyo papel como factor de riesgo para ETV no está claro (68). 7. Deficiencia de plasminógeno: HAD. Igualmente su significado como factor de riesgo para ETV resulta incierto (10, 69). 8. Disfribrinogenemia: multitud de defectos estructurales que determinan alteración en la conversión de fribrinógeno a fibrina. En torno a un 50% de los casos son asintomáticos apareciendo trombosis o hemorragia en una proporción similar de los restantes casos (70). 9. Deficiencia de factor XII (factor Hageman): trastorno clásicamente relacionado con ETV e IAM (71, 72) aunque estudios transversales no han podido comprobar dicha asociación (73). 10. Malformaciones venosas: especialmente malformaciones congénitas de vena cava inferior pueden determinar ETV en ocasiones bilateral y recurrente (74). 11. Elevación de citoquinas y factores de la coagulación: - Trombofilia adquirida 1. Malignidad: a) Tromboflebitis superficial migratoria (Sdme de Trousseau's): generalmente asociado a adeocarcinomas de páncreas, pulmón, próstata, estómago (257) 2. Traumatismos y cirugía: a) Bajo riesgo: <40 años con anestesia general <30 minutos y cirugía torácica o abdominal menor. Sin profilaxis tienen riesgo de TVP <1% y de TEP <0,01%. 3. Embarazo: riesgo elevado de ETV fundamentalmente por la resistencia a la proteína C activada que se exhibe durante el 2º y 3º trimestre (98) con una incidencia aproximada de 0,7/1000, superior en puerperio respecto a embarazo (99 - 100). Riesgo incrementado además cuando presentan trombofilia hereditaria, especialmente defectos combinados (46,102,103). 4. Anticonceptivos orales: 5. Terapia hormonal sustitutiva: 6. Tamoxifeno: parece incrementar el riesgo de ETV, especialmente en regimen de poliquimioterapia (114, 115), aunque dicho efecto aditivo pernicioso sólo se pudo confirmar en estudios posteriores para el caso de mujeres premenopáusicas (116). 7. Inmovilización: importante factor de riesgo para ETV (117 - 118). 8. Viajes: factor de riesgo controvertido, analizado para viajes en avión , llamado síndrome de la clase turista (119 - 122) con resultados dispares en estudios restrospectivos y sólo se ha objetivado un riesgo aumentado para viajes de larga distancia -mayor de 10000 Km- (123) o duración superior a 10 horas (124). 9. Fallo cardíaco: se considera de alto riesgo la fibrilación auricular, situaciones que cursan con deterioro de la función ventricular izquierda y pacientes con fallo cardíaco derecho (125). 10. Hiperhomocisteinemia: tanto congénita (defecto en el enzima MTHFR) o adquirida (deficiencia de vitamina B6, B12 o ácido fólico). Conocido factor de riesgo independiente para ateroesclerosis se considera en la actualidad también factor de riesgo para ETV (126-127), especialmente cuando se asocia con la trombofilia congénita (128). 11. ETV previa: considerado el factor de riesgo más importante para ETV recurrente con un riesgo relativo del 7'9 (129-130). 12. Otros factores de riesgo: a) Déficit adquirido de proteína C: enfermedad hepática, shock séptico-CID, SDRA, quimioterapia (5-FU, CFA...) y uremia.Manifestaciones clínicas - Ningún dato clínico se considera definitivamente sensible o específico para el diagnóstico de TEP (137), algo reconocido ya desde el análisis de la cohorte PIOPED en donde la frecuencia y variedad de la sintomatología de pacientes con TEP fue similar a la recogida en pacientes sin TEP (138-139). - Síntomas: la disnea fue el síntoma más frecuente (73%) seguida de dolor pleurítico (66%), tos (37%) y hemoptisis (13%) rara vez masiva. La disnea aislada aconteció en un 22% de los casos (138-139). - Signos: taquipnea (70%), crepitantes (51%), taquicardia (30%), 4º tono (24%) y componente pulmonar acentuado el 2º tono en un 33% (138-139). Se objetivó fiebre (menor de 38'9 ºC) en 14% de los casos (140). - El síndrome reconocido con mayor frecuencia fue el dolor pleurítico o la hemoptisis sin colapso cardiovascular (65%) mientras que el colapso circulatorio fue poco frecuente (8%) (138-139). - Aunque distintas series de autopsias han demostrado una incidencia en torno al 65-90% de TVP en casos de TEP, habitualmente no hay sintomatología local; en menos un 30% en pacientes del estudio PIOPED la TVP era sintomática a dicho nivel (138-139). Y a la inversa, el TEP asintomático en pacientes con TVP sintomática es frecuente, en torno a un 26% del total de pacientes con TEP en algunas series (141). HALLAZGOS COMPLEMENTARIOS BÁSICOS - Laboratorio: habitualmente inespecíficos. 1. Frecuente la leucocitosis, elevación de la VSG, LDH y GOT. 2. La gasometría arterial basal revela hipoxemia, hipocapnia y alcalosis respiratoria, aunque en un 18% de los casos la pO2 se sitúa entre 85 y 100 mmHg, con un gradiente alveoloarterial de oxígeno normal en otros 6% de los casos (138); dichos hallazgos no permiten excluir ni establecer el diagnóstico de TEP (142). 3. Troponina I y troponina T se elevan en un 30 y 40% de pacientes con TEP moderado-extenso, imprimen un pronóstico adverso y se ha relacionado con sobrecarga aguda del ventrículo derecho (143-144). - Electrocardiografía: aunque habitualmente es anormal -70% en cohorte PIOPED- se considera insensible e inespecífico (145). Las anormalidades más frecuentes (49%) corresponden a alteraciones inespecíficas en el segmento ST y onda T (139). - Radiografía torácica: las alteraciones evidenciadas en la cohorte PIOPED correspondían a atelectasias y/o anomalías parenquimatosas (69%) y derrame pleural (47%) con una frecuencia algo inferior de dichos hallazgos en pacientes sin TEP. Sólo en un 12% de los pacientes con TEP se consideró la radiografía de tórax como normal (138-139). Un estudio adicional considera la cardiomedalia como el hallazgo radiográfico más frecuente (146). Screenig de trombofilia hereditaria - No se considera indicado el despistaje sistemático de TH en poblaciones no seleccionadas dada la baja frecuencia de dicha condición en la población general y la ausencia de un método profiláctico seguro y rentable (287). - Ni siquiera el antecedente familiar de trombosis supone un riesgo tal que justifique dicho screening (246) aunque algunos autores lo defienden al igual que la edad temprana (< 50 años) o cuando la ETV es recurrente o la trombosis aparece en localizaciones inusuales, situaciones estas últimas de mayor consenso para el screening (41) - En debate permanece la indicación de realizar el estudio a familiares de pacientes con trombofilia hereditaria conocida o a mujeres que han presentado ETV con el uso de anticonceptivos orales y/o durante el período embarazo-puerperio. Para todo ello se han esgrimido los siguientes argumentos: - Situaciones de riesgo: * La relación coste-beneficio es muy desfavorable para considerar el screening de TH en mujeres que consumen ACO -400000 mujeres evaluadas para prevenir una muerte- (250-251). * La mortalidad por TEP en mujeres USA embarazadas se ha estimado en 1.2/100000 (253) aunque la incidencia de TVP es tan elevada como 71/100000 y la prevalencia de factor V Leiden en dichos casos del 8% (103). Con todo ello se ha estimado que el riesgo de TEP fatal debido al embarazo y TH subyacente es de 1/13000, claramente inferior al riesgo de sangrado intracraneal fatal calculado como 0.5/100 años tratamiento o 1/2000 madres anticoaguladas al menos 6 semanas (253) - Deberán estudiarse otros defectos genéticos en pacientes con una alteración ya conocida pues suponen una población de alto riesgo para ETV, en quienes está justificada la anticoagulación profiláctica para todas las situaciones de riesgo (67). Esto es especialmente válido para mujeres con deficiencia de ATIII pues tienen un riesgo especialmente elevado de ETV durante el embarazo. - El momento óptimo para realizar el screening se considera cuando han transcurrido al menos 3-6 meses tras anticoagulación por ETV, ya que inicialmente el propio fenómeno trombótico y la terapia anticoagulante producen reducciones de algunos elementos de la coagulación como PC, PS y ATIII Evaluación clínica y valor diagnóstico de las exploraciones complementarias - Valor diagnóstico de la semiología típica de TVP: 1. Sólo una minoría de pacientes con sospecha de TVP -17 a 32% según largas series- tienen realmente la enfermedad (148-149), por lo que la TVP no puede ser diagnosticada sobre la base de la historia y la exploración física, incluso en pacientes de alto riesgo (150). 2. En algunos estudios (151, 285) el dolor en la extremidad tuvo una sensibilidad del 66-91% y especificidad del 3-87% para el diagnóstico de TVP; el signo de Homans una sensibilidad del 13-48% y especificidad de 39-84% para dicho propósito y el valor del edema como elemento diagnóstico fue igualmente inconstante (sensibilidad 35-97% y especificidad 8-88%). La exploración física puede revelar cordón venoso palpable, edema, calor o dilatación venosa superficial (152-154). - Probabilidad clínica pretest de TEP: debe considerarse como una ayuda de cara a la selección e interpretación de estudios adicionales que resultan del todo necesarios para el diagnóstico de TEP o su exclusión 1. En 1998 Wells y colaboradores (147) publicaron un algoritmo clínico para establecer la probalidad pretest de TEP, teniendo en cuenta una serie de aspectos: a) Cirugía en las 12 semanas previasConsiderados los parámetros establecieron tres categorías clínicas: a) Síncope o,La combinación de los datos recogidos permitió establecer tres categorías de probabilidad pretest según el siguiente algoritmo: ![]() Con todo ello se documentó TEP en un 3% de pacientes con probabilidad prestest baja, en un 28% de casos con probabilidad pretest moderada y en un 78% de los casos con probabilidad pretest alta sobre un total de 1239 pacientes con sospecha de TEP a los que se les aplicó dicho algoritmo. 2. En la cohorte PIOPED no se formalizó un algoritmo completo. Se estratificaron los pacientes igualmente en tres categorías de probabilidad pretest evidenciando 9% de TEP en grupo de pacientes asignados a baja probabilidad pretest y 67% de TEP en pacientes asignados a alta probabilidad clínica, si bien la mayoría de pacientes (64%) fue asignada a probabilidad intermedia. 3. Hallazgos similares fueron objetivados en un estudio prospectivo realizado con posterioridad (155). - Valor de las exploraciones complementarias: 1. En la TVP aguda: a) Pletismografía de impedancia (IPG): * Detectados en niveles > 500 ngr/ml en prácticamente la totalidad de pacientes con ETV, aunque resultan insuficientes para establecer el diagnóstico dada su inespecificidad, pues se hallan presentes también en pacientes hospitalizados, especialmente aquellos con cirugía reciente o malignidad subyacente.2. En la TVP crónica o recurrente: 3. En el embolismo pulmonar: * Test no invasivo con mayor validez para estudiar pacientes con sospecha de TEP (219), algo evaluado en el estudio PIOPED (220) donde fue especialmente válida cuando resultaba negativa o de alta probabilidad y, sobre todo cuando la probabilidad pretest era también elevada, suficiente entonces para establecer el diagnóstico ya que la probabilidad de TEP se aproximaba así al 95%: * Considerada históricamente la prueba de referencia para el diagnóstico de TEP (224 - 225). Aún así su sensibilidad y especificidad no han sido del todo aclaradas y además es bien conocida la variabilidad de precisión interobservador; en cualquier caso el riesgo de TEP en pacientes con angiografía negativa es extremadamente bajo (226 - 228). * Su sensibilidad y especificidad para el diagnóstico de TEP oscila entre un 86 - 95% en términos generales, objetivando variabilidad interobservador y obtención de valores más desfavorables cuando se incluyen TEPs periféricos en los estudios (229 - 230) Estrategias diagnósticas recomendadas por la ATS-1999 (245) 1. En la TVP: ![]() * Aunque la VC sigue siendo la prueba diagnóstica por excelencia decidir inicialmente entre US o IPG dependiendo de la experiencia de la institución. * No parece justificado sistematizar el screening de TVP asintomática ni siquiera en pacientes de alto riesgo. * No hay una prueba diagnóstica ideal, incluso la VC no aporta información definitiva. 2. En el TEP: ![]() Hipertensión pulmonar 2ª a ETV crónica (HTAP-ETV) - Generalidades: - Clínica: - Diagnostico: TVP de extremidades superiores (TVP-ES) - También llamado síndrome de Paget-Schroetter fue descrito por primera vez en 1875 (61). Aunque en su forma idiopática se considera excepcional (67), su frecuencia ha aumentado con el uso de dispositivos intravasculares - Etiología: - Aunque la presentación clínica es típica y relacionada con la actividad del miembro (palidez, dolor, edema, circulación colateral y cianosis distal) su sensibilidad y especificidad como referencia diagnóstica es baja (174) lo que obliga a la realización de estudios adicionales antes de iniciar el tratamiento. - La FC ha sido la prueba más usada para dicho fin (165) pero en circunstancias de dificultad técnica puede ser sustituída por el DIVAS (198) o incluso por técnicas no invasivas como la US, aunque utilizadas como método de screening -especialmente el doppler color- (215) no permiten planificar el tratamiento quirúrgico y carecen de utilidad en trombos no oclusivos,TVP subclavia proximal y/o en venas innominadas (218) que son localizaciones habituales en la TVP-ES relacionada con dispositivos intravasculares, menos frecuente en formas espontáneas. Para ello ofrece mayor especificidad la RMN si bien su sensibilidad sigue siendo baja (235), mejorable con V-RMN, todavía en experimentación a dicho nivel (244). Aunque el TAC puede ser utilizado para la detección de trombos en venas subclavias no ha sido lo suficientemente evaluado para conocer su sensibilidad y especificidad (254). - La incidencia de embolias se sitúa en torno al 36% (174) y parece que podría disminuir con el tratamiento anticoagulante pero lo cierto es que esta hipótesis no ha sido evaluada con rigor. En una serie corta y con seguimiento en torno a los 5 años (288) se ha podido comprobar sin embargo que al menos la mitad de los pacientes anticoagulados permanecían sin secuelas, algo de extremado valor si tenemos en cuenta que el proceso afecta a menudo a sujetos jóvenes en pleno desarrollo de sus capacidades laborales y sociales. No se conoce con certeza el óptimo manejo terapéutico de la ETV-ES dada la ausencia de estudios controlados prospectivos a gran escala por lo que se asume que no hay datos firmes en los que basar las decisiones clínicas (292). - Con el objeto de minimizar la insuficiencia venosa, restaurar y mantener el flujo venoso, se considera validado el uso de fibrinolisis (SK o tPA) mediada por catéter -incluso tras 2 semanas de evolución sintomática- y anticoagulación seguido de FC de control y medidas adicionales si se objetiva obstrucción venosa residual, como angioplastia con balón y/o cirugía correctora habitualmente en las primeras 24-48 horas de tratamiento (295-298). Pero, como no hay una correlación estrictamente directa entre obstrucción residual por FC y repercusión clínica (288,295) los pacientes con alto riesgo quirúrgico o que no desean ser intervenidos (300) pueden ser manejados de forma conservadora manteniendo anticoagulación durante 6-8 semanas en cuyo momento se debe realizar una FC de control para evaluar el grado de relleno en la circulación colateral. Si no se objetiva circulación colateral se puede deducir que la estenosis no tiene repercusión hemodinámica y el riesgo de recurrencia es bajo por lo que se podría retirar la anticoagulación. Si se objetiva circulación colateral el riesgo de recurrencia es alto por lo que aunque no hay evidencias al respecto, parece razonable mantener la anticoagulación por tiempo prolongado. - El abordaje terapéutico a largo plazo, especialmente en el mantenimiento de la anticoagulación, debe ser individualizado (299). - Se aconseja revisar con FC la extremidad contralateral en busca de obstrucciones. Profilaxis de la ETV - Generalidades: - Medidas profilácticas: 1. Heparina no fraccionada (HNF) a baja dosis: 2. HNF a dosis ajustada: aunque se comprobó superior a placebo, es menos eficaz que HBPM y su uso no se ha generalizado para profilaxis (382) 3. Heparinas de bajo peso molecular (HBPM): 4. Anticoagulación oral: ha demostrado ser superior a placebo o aspirina (470) y a dispositivos de compresión neumática externa (471) para la profilaxis de la ETV en distintas circunstancias aunque es inferior a las HBPM para tal fin (472-474) 5. Compresión venosa neumática intermitente (CVNI): reduce la incidencia de TVP en pacientes de riesgo moderado y cirugía general, pacientes neuroquirúrgicos o aquellos que van a ser sometidos a cirugía de derivación arterial (475-477) aunque son menos efectivos en pacientes sometidos a cirugía de cadera o prótesis de rodilla pues no previenen la TVP proximal (478-479) 6. Medias de compresión gradual: reduce la incidencia de TVP postquirúrgica sólo en pacientes de bajo riesgo (480) y en algunos seleccionados de riesgo moderado (481-482) 7. Aspirina: parece reducir la incidencia de ETV tras procedimientos de cirugía general y ortopédica (483) pero es claramente inferior a otros agentes si bien supone un beneficio adicional a los mismos cuando se administra de forma conjunta (484). 8. Hirudina recombinante: la desirudina -hirudina recombinante- ha demostrado se superior a enoxaparina para la prevención de TVP en pacientes sometidos a prótesis total de cadera (485) por lo que ha sido aprobada para dicho uso en la Unión Europea. 9. Fondaparinux: aprobada como agente profiláctico de TVP en pacientes sometidos a cirugía ortopédica por fractura y/o prótesis de cadera y prótesis de rodilla, pues ha demostrado su eficacia en dicho contexto al compararla con HBPM (486-487) - Algunas recomendaciones (92): 1. Cada hospital debería desarrollar un protocolo de prevención de la ETV para las distintas categorías de riesgo quirúrgico y pacientes de unidades médicas. 2. No se debe utilizar la aspirina como profilaxis de ETV puesto que hay otras medidas mucho más efectivas. 3. Se debe tener especial cuidado al administrar profilaxis en pacientes sometidos a punción espinal o portadores de catéter epidural (489) 4. Recomendaciones según categorías: * Bajo riesgo à deambulación precoz Tratamiento de la ETV - Tratamiento del TEP masivo: 1. Medidas generales: la admnistración de oxígeno suplementario y/o ventilación mecánica son medidas obvias. 2. Soporte hemodinámico: 3. Tratamiento trombolítico: 4. Embolectomía por catéter: cuando la trombolisis está contraindicada o resultó ineficaz. No hay estudios a gran escala, controlados y randomizados que hayan evaluado la seguridad y eficacia de la embolectomía con catéter ni que hayan comparado las distintas técnicas (434-437) con otras modalidades terapéuticas. 5. Embolectomía quirúrgica: aunque de forma controvertida (438-439) se acepta que la hipotensión refractaria y la evidencia de trombo en cavidades cardíacas derechas o en foramen oval son indicaciones para la embolectomía quirúrgica (440) que parece mejorar la supervivencia, salvo parada cardíaca previa (441) 6. Filtros vena cava inferior (VCI): pocos estudios se han diseñado para atender esta cuestión (442) y ninguno de ellos de carácter prospectivo y randomizado que pudiera indicar qué grupo de pacientes se beneficiaría de dicho tratamiento. En líneas generales pueden estar indicados tras embolectomía quirúrgica (443), cuando la anticoagulación está contraindicada en modo absoluto, en aquéllos que sobreviviendo a un TEP masivo la recurrencia podría resultar fatal y los que presentan un TEP documentado durante anticoagulación adecuada. - Tratamiento de eventos "no masivos" 1. Generalidades: 2. Heparina: * Sangrado: se considera mayor cuando se localiza intracraneal o retroperitoneo, produce una caída de al menos 2 gr de hemoglobina o cuando se precisan 2 o más concentrados de hematíes para correción de la anemia; sangrado menor supone el resto de los supuestos. El mayor riesgo acontece en la primera semana de tratamiento. Aunque hay una estrecha relación entre valores subterapéuticos de TPTa y ETV recurrente, la relación entre TPTa supraterapéutico y sangrado es menos clara. Se sabe además que la probabilidad de sangrado (± 5.5%) se relaciona más con otros factores de riesgo habituales para el mismo como edad avanzada, enfermedad ulcerosa péptica, neoplasia... (368)3. Heparinas de bajo peso molecular(HBPM): * Para tinzaparina se ha objetivado una tasa de recurrencia de ETV menor (347) 4. Anticoagulación oral * ETV típica: si el primer evento tuvo lugar en un contexto con factores de riesgo transitorios clásicos, la anticoagulación oral debería mantenerse por un período de 3 a 6 meses (137, 336,356,357). a) Si hay factores de riesgo identificables y potencialmente reversibles: no está clara la duración de la anticoagulación aunque se considera debería mantenerse mientras éstos persisten (336). Un estudio demostró además que su mantenimiento durante al menos 4 años era altamente efectivo para disminuir las recurrencias respecto al tratamiento de 6 meses (21% a 2.6%) aunque no hubo diferencia en la mortalidad y se apreció una mayor incidencia de sangrado (321) 5. Trombolisis: * Aunque estudios randomizados han demostrado que la probabilidad de trombolisis y venografía de seguimiento normalizada es superior con la administración sistémica de estreptoquinasa (SK) o rTPA (396,399) respecto a heparina, mejorando entonces el síndrome postflebítico, su uso es controvertido (400) entre otros argumentos porque aumenta el riesgo de sangrado (396) siendo además contraindicado en muchos casos por cirugía reciente (401). También resulta prometedor el beneficio objetivado con la administración local de SK (455) o rTPA (456) mediadas por catéter, aunque con una alta tasa de sangrado, sobre todo local. * Indicado en el TEP masivo (mortalidad > 20% a pesar del tratamiento)6. Filtros de vena cava inferior (VCI): * En fases iniciales, la adición de filtros de VCI al tratamiento anticoagulante habitual en pacientes con TVP, supuso una menor incidencia de TEP, pero tras 2 años de seguimiento no hubo diferencias a dicho nivel o respecto a la supervivencia, apreciando además una mayor recurrencia de TVP en dichos pacientes (402) * Indicado cuando la anticoagulación está contraindicada en modo absoluto, pacientes que sobreviven a un TEP masivo cuya recurrencia puede resultar fatal y aquellos que presentan un TEP documentado durante anticoagulación adecuada. De forma profiláctica también se ha establecido la indicación, sin conocer relación riesgo-beneficio de forma controlada- en pacientes sin TVP pero de alto riesgo para desarrollarla como TEP previo y fractura de cadera, neoplasia, embolectomía pulmonar ... (418)- Recomendaciones del American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) 6th Consensus Conference on Antithrombotic Therapy (336) - Nuevos anticoagulantes: 1. Danaparoide: heparinoide de bajo peso molecular cuyo efecto anticoagulante es mediado por la inhibición de trombina vía combinación con la AT (cofactor de heparina I), actuando además como cofactor de heparina II y por un mecanismo endotelial todavía no bien definido (503); el efecto neto es más selectivo como inhibidor de factor Xa que las HBPM, con una razón anti-factor Xa/actividad antitrombina de 28:1 comparado con 3:1 de HBPM (504). Su efecto se monitoriza -importante en pacientes con insuficiencia renal- con el análisis de anti-factor Xa. Es una alternativa anticoagulante en pacientes con TVP a tratamiento y que desarrollan TIH, aunque hay un 10% de reactividad entre danaparoide y el anticuerpo responsable de dicho problema cuyo significado clínico todavía es controvertido (504-505). Es caro, tiene una vida media larga-25-100h- (503) y carece de antídoto. 2. Inhibidores directos de la trombina: en comparación con heparina, inhiben la trombina ligada al coágulo porque sus ligandos no están enmascarados por la fibrina (506-507); además no son susceptibles a inhibidores liberados desde las plaquetas (FP-4, heparinasa..) y su eficacia no se altera en circunstancias de deficiencia en antitrombina. 3. Inhibidores del factor X - Fondaparinux: ha demostrado ser más eficaz que las HBPM para la prevención de la ETV en pacientes sometidos a cirugía ortopédica mayor (518). 4. Anticoagulantes en desarrollo - Mutante de trombina (E229K): tiene menos de 1% de las propiedades procoagulantes de la trombina "salvaje" pero conserva al menos el 50% de capacidad para activar la proteína C por lo que funciona como un anticoagulante (519) BIBLIOGRAFÍA 1. B Taylor Thompson, Charles A Hales. Clinical manifestations of and diagnostic strategies for acute pulmonary embolism. 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